CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Water is a basic resource, it is also the most
essential liquid substance, and the substance of life is highly dependent on
its ability. The importance of water cannot be over emphasized, as it is used for
domestic, agricultural, industrial, economic and commercial purposes. World
Business Council For Sustainable Development (WBCSD, 2005) reported that 70% of
the surface of the earth is covered by water, bur less than 3% of the world`s
water is fresh and consumable, while then rest is sea water and undrinkable, it
was estimated that 663 million worldwide still utilize unimproved drinking
water sources, including unprotected wells, springs and surface of water. Of
this 3% over 2.5% is frozen, locked up in Antartica the Arctic and glaciers,
and not available to man. Thus humanity rely on 0.5% for all man`s and
ecosystem`s fresh water need`s. This 0.5% is the water found in lakes, rivers,
reservoirs and those underground sources that are shallow enough to be snowfall
and therefore available on a sustainable basis. An old adage captures the
dangerous paradox of water this way. “Water, water, everywhere but not a drop
to drink”. It`s everywhere yet most of it, is inaccessible. Even the little
amount available to man has drastically reduced over the years due to
pollution.
The environment has a way of multiplying and giving
back what man gives to it, so man has become a smear to himself, by constantly
discharging harmful substances into his environment. The problem of water
pollution has become an issue drawing global attention. Everyday, about 2millon
tons of sewage, industrial and agricultural waste is discharged into the
world`s water (UN WWAP, 2003). The United Nation estimates that the amount of
waste water that results in pollution, produced annually is about 1.5million m3,
this is six times more water than exists in all then rivers of the world. UN
World Water Assessment Programmed (UN WWAP, 2003).
Polluted water causes serious health implications
worldwide. It is estimated that 3,900 children die each day due to poor hygiene
and dirty water (WHO, 2004). 1.8million people die every year from diarrhea
diseases (including Cholera). The equivalent of 15killer tsunamis each year or
12 Boeing 747 crashes everyday. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the
United Nation`s (UN) revealed that in African countries, particularly Nigeria,
water related diseases had been interfering with basic human development (FAO,
2007)
Heavy metals are known to be one of the most fatal
pollutants of water. This is because they are very minutes quantities in water.
They find their way into surrounding water bodies majorly as a result of
adverse activities carried out by man such as: discharge of untreated
industrial wastes into water bodies, improper use of agro-allied chemicals such
as pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers, mining activities etc. The health
hazards of heavy metals are enormous; Lead(Pb) is known to have adverse effects
especially in children, causing anemia, cancers, reproductive disorders and
hormone disorders.
Drinking water treatment involves a number of unit
processes. Commonly used chemicals for the various treatment units are
synthetic organic and inorganic substances (such as Alum, Chlorine, Acrylamide,
and activated carbon); usually these chemicals are expensive and are not
readily available, especially in the rural area. Apart from these, they also
constitute a number of health problems for instance, the use of alum has been
reported to cause Alzheimer`s diseases, while some synthetic organic polymer
such as acrylamide have strong neurotoxic and carcinogenic effect, Chlorine
being a strong oxidizing agent react with natural organic matter(NOM) to form
Disinfection By Product (DBP) and these DBP have been associated with increased
risk for cancer and other health-related issues. They have also been reported
to be non-eco family as they tend to affect non-target organisms and are
usually non-bio gradable.
Since the use of conventional methods for
water treatment in developing countries is unsustainable, there is a need to
consider alternative technologies of water treatment using naturally occurring
materials. One of the areas that holds great prospect is the Plant Kingdom
especially the use of plant seeds in the treatment of water.
Adansonia digitata-Baobab (commonly known
as “KUKA” in the northern Nigeria) is a deciduous tree belonging to arid
central Africa. It is widely distributed and can be found in most of the
sub-humid regions as well as in western Madagascar. It is an imposing large
deciduous tree with large pendulous regions shaped fruits having a velvet
coat(The velvet coat is known to itch when it comes in contact with the skin).
Different parts of the tree are used as foods and medicines including the back fibers
and no part of the tree is a waste. This research attempts to evaluate the seed
of Adansonia digitata(Baobab) as bio coagulant in water purification.
1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The aim and objective of this work is to treat water
using Adansonia digitata (Baobab) as bio coagulant or as a natural source of
water purification and to develop an integrated portable water system.
The objectives is to extract pollutants, remove
toxicants, kills pathogens, evaluate the seed of Adansonia digitata (Baobab) as
bio coagulant so that quality of discharged water is improved to reach the
permissible level of water.
1.3 SCOPE AND LIMITATION
The scope and limitation of the research work is to
work treat surface water or dirty water to a clean one. It also covers the
aspect of how can materials from nature serves a bio coagulant to treat water.
According to study, improvised water filter is
effective. And according to other researchers, this kind of water filter is really
capable of doing its job. It is effectual; however, there is a possibility but
only a minimal chance that the process of filtering the water will be difficult
since, unlike, other commercialized water filter, an improvised one is only
made of sand, pebbles, carbon, etc.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Several plants seeds have been reported to contain
coagulant proteins, which is responsible for their biocoagulative,
disinfectant, and biosorptive properties that enhances the purification of
water. The use of alternative technologies (such as use of plants) in the purification
of water has not been fully explored, and the findings of this work would give
vital information that would contribute towards the solving of the problems of
water pollution (especially in the rural areas).
1.5 STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
Water pollution has become a global phenomenon and a
thing of concern across the nations of the world. It is estimated that about
748million people, continue to rely on unimproved drinking water sources, of
whom almost a quarter (173million people) still rely on direct use of surface
water (WHO and UNICEF, 2014)
The use of chemicals in the treatment of
water is expensive, and is not readily available especially in the rural areas.
Chemicals used in the treatment of water have been reported to be hazardous to
man and his environment.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 CONVENTIONAL METHOD OF WATER TREATMENT
The
treatment of water for drinking involves a number of combined processes based
on the quality of the water source. Water is treated so as to reduce turbidity
and the amount of microbial load present in it (Bodlund, 2013). Water suppliers
use a variety of treatment processes to remove contaminants from drinking
water. These individual processes may be arranged in a “treatment train” (a series
of processes may applied in sequence). The most common processes include
coagulation (flocculation and sedimentation), filtration, and disinfection used
for surface water. Other treatment trains also include ion exchange and
adsorption method as shown below (USEFA, 2004).
|
Coagulation |
|
Filtration |
|
Ion
Exchange |
|
Adsorption |
|
Disinfection |
Block diagram of conventional methods of water
purification.(Blue arrows indicate links that may be absent in some system
unit).
2.1.1
Coagulation (Flocculation and Sedimentation)
Coagulation is a process that involves the addition of coagulant (e.g.
alum) in water, which causes particles to aggregate into larger particles that
can settle. Turbidity is caused ask a result of suspended particles and Natural
Organic Matter (NOM) present in water. These particles are negatively charged
and are therefore repelling each other, making it impossible for them aggregate
and settle. The particles are carriers of unwanted contaminants and pathogenic
organisms. In order to decrease the turbidity of water some positively charged
chemicals (usually Alum and iron salt or synthetic organic polymers) are added
(USEPA, 2004). This will destabilizethe particles by neutralization of the
negative charges. Flocculation is the agglomeration of these particles into
large size particles known as flocs, which will settle by gravity
(sedimentation). Turbidity of water (H2O) is most commonly measured
by turbid meter and expressed in NephelometricTurbidity Unit (NTU) (Bodlund,
2013)
2.1.2
Filtration
Filtration clarifies water and enhances the effectiveness of
disinfection. Many water treatment facilities use filtration to remove all
particles from the water. Those particles include clays and silts, natural
organic matter, precipitates from other treatment processes in the facility,
iron and manganese, and micro-organism (USEPA, 2004).
2.1.3
Ion Exchange
Ion
exchangeis a processes used for removing inorganic contaminants if they cannot
be removing adequately by sedimentation or filtration. It is a process that can
be used in the treatment of hard water. It can also be used in the removal of
arsenic, Chromium, excess Fluoride, Nitrates, Radium and Uranium etc.
2.1.4
Adsorption
Adsorption
is a process that involves the addition of an adsorbent (e.g. activated carbon)
in water for the removal of organic contaminant, unwanted coloring, and
taste-and-odor causing compounds. This compounds stick to the surface of the
granular or powder activated carbon and are thus removed from the drinking
water.
2.1.5
Disinfection
Water
is usually disinfected before it is released into the distribution system to
ensure that potentially dangerous microbes are killed. Chlorine, chloramines,
or chlorine dioxide are mostly used because they are very effective disinfectants,
not only at the treatment plan but also in the pipes that distribute water to
our homes and business, since they have residual effects. Ozone is also a
powerful disinfectant, and ultraviolet radiation is an effective disinfectant
and treatment for relatively clean source waters, but neither of these are
effevtive in the controlling biological contaminats in the distribution pipes,
and they are expensive methods (USEPA, 2004).
2.2
PLANT SEED AS BIOCOAGULANTS
A
number of plant seeds have been reported to have potentials to serve as
biocoagulants and disinfectant in the purification of water (Edogbanyaet al.,2013a). Women in rural areas of
Sudan (Jahn and Dirar, 1979), Tanzania (Morobheetal.,2007) and India (Saifet
al.,2012) treat their water with Moringa seed powder prior to use as
drinking water. (Amagloh and Benang, 2009) reported that a concentration of
moringa oleifera powder of 12.0g/100ml loading dose as coagulant gives similar
effect on turbidity compared with alum of loading dose of 10.0g/1000ml and
12.0g/1000ml.( Pritchard et at.,2010)
reported that Moringa oleifera removed 84% turbidity of water initially at 146
NTU. Attempts have been made to characterize and purify the active bio
coagulant protein of Moringa oleifera and considerable success have been
achieved (Ghebremichael, 2005). Apart from the turbidity removal properties, Moringa
oleifera has been reported to have antimicrobial properties in water (Amagloh
and Benang, 2009; Choubeyet al.,
2012; Pritchard et al.,2011; Yongabiet al.,) Diaz et al. (1999) reported that Prosopisjulifloraseed
extra was able to produce a final water whose turbidity was close to the
required standard of 5NTU with both high (100-200 NTU) and low (30-40NTU)
initially turbidities. Choubeyet al.(2012)
reported that turbidity reduced up to 95.89% for highly turbid water which is
almost as same as the reduction capacity of alum. Cicerarientinumwas also found to propose antimicrobial properties
(Choubeyet al., 2012). Subramaniumet al.(2011) reported that extract of phaseolus vulgaris and zee mays could
reduce level frm 250 NTU to 100 and 55NTU respectively, after 24hrs standing
period. Saefudinet al. (2012)
reported that at a concentration of 0.1% over 98.5% turbidity removal was achieved
using viciafaba seed extra. Dalziel (1973) reported that coagulative
and disinfectant property of parkiabiglobassa. Yongabiet al.(2011) reported that the seed of perseaamericana,Garcinia kola, Caricapapaya were able to reduce the
turbidity of water gotten from 27,33, and 117NTU to 13.2, 14.11 and 42.6NTU;
7.11, 11.3 and 20NTU and 9.9, 9.4 and
11.9NTU respectively. The seed extract of those
plants were also reported to have antimicrobial properties (Yongabiet al., 2011). Yongabiet al.(2012) reported that seed extract
of Hibiscus sabdariffa and Jartrophacurcas had both biocoagulative
and disinfectant properties.
2.2.1 MECHANISM OF ACTION OF SEEDS AS BIOCOAGULANT
The chemical composition of the active
seeds of Moringa oleifara have been debated. Several researchers have described
the active component from a water extract as cationic and proteinaceuos
(Ndabigengesereet al., 1995; Muyibi
and Alfugara, 2003). However a few have argued that the active component from a
salts extract responsible for coagulation is an organic polyelectrolyte that is
neither protein nor polysaccharide (Okuda et
al., 2001). Researchers have suggested the coagulation mechanism for the water
extracted active agent is adsorptioln and charge neutralization. The antimicrobial
(disinfectant) property of seeds have continued to be researched. Findings
support recombinant proteins both removing micro-organisms by coagulation as
well as acting directly as growth inhibitors of the microorganisms (Doerr,
2015).
2.2.2 ADVANTAGES OF THE
USE OF BIOCOAGULANTS AND DISINFECTANT FROM PLANT SEED
Compared
to the commonly used chemicals for coagulation and disinfection, seeds have a
number of advantages (Ghebremichael, 2004);
Ø It
is of low cost
Ø Produces
biodegradable sludge
Ø Produces
lower Sludge volume
Ø Does
not significantly affect the Ph. of the water
Ø Has
little or no health implication
2.2.3 DISADVANTAGES OF
THE USE OF SSEDS AS BIOCOAGULANTS AND DISINFECTANTS
The
use of seeds as biocoagulant and disinfectants also have some disadvantages
(Ndabigengesereet al., 1995 Okuda et al., 2001;Ghebremichael, 2004).
Ø Most
of the coagulation and antimicrobial studies of seed extracts are based on
Laboratory scale experiments and household level applications.
Ø The
major limitation in using crude seed extracts for large-scale water treatment
applications is the release of organic matter and nutrients (nitrate and
phosphate) to the water and unfortunately many researches do not give account
of the dissolved organic matter left behind after seeds are used. The organic
and nutrient released from the seed can be avoided either by purifying the
coagulant components or by removing the released substances from the water.
2.3 PLANT SEED AS BIOSORBENTS
Bio sorption is simply a kind of adsorption
involving adsorbates which are biological in origin. Commonly called bio
sorbents (Davrilescu, 2004). Several plant seeds been reported to have the
potential to serve as bio sorbents (Edogbanyet
al., 2013b). Kumariet al. (2006)
reported that seeds of moringa oleifera made recoveries of up to 60.21% for
As(III) and 85.60% for As(V); sharmaet al.
(2007) reported 76.59% for Cd(II), 68.85% for Cr(III) and 60.52% for Ni(II);
Mancyet.,(2013) reported 88% for
Cr(VI) and 69% for Fe(III), Meneghelet al.(2013)
reported a maximum absorbance(qm) of 7.864 mgg-1 for Cd(II) at
optimum conditions.Eagilaet al.(2011)
reported that seeds of Carica papaya had a maximum absorbance of 4.1mg/100cm3
and 3.63mg/100cm3 for Mn(II) and Pb(II) respectively at 330c
and contact time for 90mins;Hadietal.(2011)
reported that seeds had a maximum adsorption capacity (qm) of 212 mmg-1
for Cu(II). Obah and Aluyor (2008) reported that sour sop seeds achieved the
removal of 77.6, 68.5, 56.4 and 40.6% for Cu(II), Ni(II), Zn(II) and Pb(II)
respectively after a contact time of 120min. Zamaniet al.(2013) reported that Peganumharmalaseeds
adsorbed about 95% of Pb(II) 75% of Zn(II) and 90% of Cd(II) from 45ml of
aqueous solution containing 20mgl-1 of each cation with 2g of
absorbent at PH 4.5 after 15min. Sen (2012) reported that Jartrophacurcas seed hull had a maximum adsorbance of 11.8906mmg-1
for Cd(II). Mancyet al. (2013)
reported that a removal of about 94.6% and 70% for Cr(VI) and Fe(III)
respectively were observed using Tamarindusindica
seeds as bio sorbent at PH4 and temperature of 311k. Stanley et al.(2013) reported that Azadiracthaindica seed dhells had a
maximum adsorption cacity of 66.66mmg-1 for Ni(II). Rajet al.(2013) reported that natural Leucaenaleucocephale seeds used as bio
sorbent had a removal capacity of 81.88% and 92.61%, for As(III) and As(V)
respectively, while removal capacity increased to 85% and 99% for As(III) and
As(V) respectively. Ahalyyaet al.,(2005)
reported that dried seed (gram husk) of Cicerarietinum
showed 99.9% removal of Cr(VI); Kale (2012) reported that the maximum
adsorption (qm) of 5g of sulphonatedCicerarietinum
biomass was 74% for Pb(II). Omorogiet al.(2012)
reported that at a temperature of 333k, the highest amount of metal biosorbed
for Cd(II) and Hg(II) obtained were 6.30 and 6.15mmg-1 respectively.
Stanley et al.(2013) reported that Strychnospotatorum shows removal
efficiency of 69% of Chromium(VI) and 58% of Iron(III) at acidic PH and 0.1mgl-1
of initial metal ion concentration.
2.3.1 MECHANISM OF
ACTION OF SEEDS AS BIOSORBENTS
For agricultural products (such as plant seeds), the
mode of sorption can be attributed to two main terms, intrinsic adsorption and
columbic interaction (Gang and Weixing, 1998). The columbic term results from the
electrostatic energy of interactions between the adsorbents and adsorbates,
which result in affinity of the sorbent for the sorbates. The process continues
until equilibrium is established between the amount of sorbate bound to the
sorbent and the portion remaining in the solution. The degree of sorbent
affinity for the sorbate determines its distribution between the solid phase
and liquid phase (Das et al.,2008).
The charges on substances as well as softness or hardness of charges on both
sides are mostly responsible for the intensity of the interaction. Columbic
interaction can be observed from the adsorption of cationic species versus
anionic species on adsorbents (Gang et al.1998).
The intrinsic adsorption of the materials is determine by their surface areas,
which can be observed by the effect of different sizes of adsorbent on
adsorption capacity (Igwe and Abia, 2005).
2.3.2 ADVANTAGES OF THE
USE OF SEEDS AS BIOSORBENT
Bio
sorbents have several advantages over conventional techniques (Igwe and Abia,
2006; Singh et al., 2014). They
include;
Ø Cheap;
the cost of the bio sorbent is low since they often are made from abundant or
waste materials.
Ø High
uptake capacity; they have the ability to adsorp high quantity heavy metals.
Ø Metal
selective; the metal sorbing performance of different types of biomass can be
more or less on different metals. This depends on various factors such as types
of biomass, mixture in th solution, types of biomass preparation and
physioco-chemical treatment.
Ø Regenerative;
bio sorbents can be reused, after the metal is recycled.
Ø No
sludge generation; no secondary problems with sludge occur with bio sorption,
as in the case of many other techniques, for example, precipitation.
Ø Metal
recovery possible; In case of metals, it can be recovered after being sorbed
from the solution.
Ø Competitive
performance; bio sored is capable of a performance comparable to the most
similar technique e.g. ion exchange treatment.
2.3.3 DISADVANTAGES OF
THE USE OF SEED AS BIO SORBENTS
In
spite of the advantages of bio sorption it also have some disadvantages
(Ahluwulia and Goyal, 1998; Das et al.2008).
They include;
Ø Early
saturation i.e. when metal interactive sites are occupied, metal desorption is
necessary prior to further use.
Ø The
potential for biological process improvement (e.g. through genetic engineering
of cells) is limited because cells are not metabolizing.
Ø There
is no potential for biologically altering the metal valence state.
Ø Release
of the organic matter and nutrients into the water.
2.4 ADANSONIA DIGITATA
CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom; Plantae
Division;
Magnoliphyta
Class;
Equisetopsida
Subclass;
Magnolide
Superorder;
Rosana
Order; Malvales
Family; Mavaceae
Genus; Adansonia
Species;Adansonia
digitata
(Royal Botanical
Gardens, KEW)
2.5 GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Adansonia digitata is an imposing large tree
reaching heights of about 18-25m and producing a rounded crown showing a stiff
branching habit. It has a characteristic swollen trunk of up to 10m in
diameter, usually tapering or cylindrical and abruptly bottle-shaped, often
buttressed. Giant individuals can reach a girth of up to 28.m. branches are
distributed irregularly and large, primary branches may be well distributed
along the trunk or limited to the apex, young branches are somewhat tomentose
but rarely glabrous. The bark is smooth, reddish brown to grey, soft and
fibrous. The bark of leaf bearing branches is normally ashy on the last node
there is a green layer below the outer layer of the bark presumed to
photosynthesis when the has shed its leaves (Sidible and Williams, 2002).
The tree produces an extensive lateral root system
and the root end in tubers. Seedlings produce a strong prominent taproot but
this is soon replaced by laterals. Roots of matured tress rarely extend beyond
2m and are relatively shallow. One reason explaining why tress are often
toppled in old ages (Sidible and Williams, 2002).
Leaves are usually scanty on branches they are 2-3
foliate at the start of the season and they are early deciduous, more mature
ones are 5-7(-9) foliate. Leaves are alternate at the end of branches or occur
on short spurs on the trunk. Leaves of young trees are often simple. Leaflets
are sessible to shortly, with great variation in size (Sidible and Williams,
2002).
Flowers are pendulous, solitary or paired in leaf
axils, large and slowy and produced during both wet and dry seasons. Pedicels
usually vary greatly in length, 15-90cm, with 2small, canducous bracteoles near
the apex of the pedcical (Sidible and William, 2002).
Fruits are very variable, they are also pendulous,
usually globase to ovoid but sometimes oblong cylindrical, often irregular in
shape, 7.5-54cm long *7.5-20cm wide, apex appointed or obtuse, covered by
velvety yellowish to greenish hairs (Sidible and Williams, 2002). The hair has
a characteristic itch on the skin. The mature fruits have a white pulp
containing numerous seeds which are been shaped with a hard brownish shell.
Actually the meaning of “Baobab” is “Fruits of many seeds”. (Ajayiet al., 2003).
2.6 DISTRIBUTION
African Baobab occurs naturally in most countries
south of the sahara with notable absence in Liberia, Uganda, Djibouti and
Burundi. In some of these countries its distillation is limited, e.g. in Chad,
where it is not found in the east, and south Africa where it is mostly limited
to the Transvaal. Essentially, baobab is associated with the Savannah,
especially the drier parts. However, there are extensions of the distribution
into forest areas, probably associated with human habitation. It appears to be
introduced into more equatorial areas, such as Gabon, Democratic Congo and
Zaire, and to countries with a marked dry season such as Sao Iome, Madagascar
and Comoros (Sidible and Williams, 2002).
2.7 USES
The Baobabtree is a tree of multiple uses and it is
said that all part of the tree is useful. Generally it is used as food, for
providing emergency water, fibers and medicines (Igboeliet al., 1997; Gebaueret al.,
2002; Sidible and Williams, 2002; De Caluweet
al., 2010).
2.7.1 FOOD USES
LEAVES
The fresh young leaves are used as a staple food in
many parts of sub Saharan Africa. Young leaves are widely used, cooked as
spinach, and frequently dried, often powdered and used for sauces over
porridges, thick gruels of grains, or boiled rice. In northern Nigeria the
dried leaves are dried, pounded and used in making a special soup called
“MiyanKuka” which is used in eating “Tuwo” (corn food). The leaves contain
(expressed on dry weight basis) ; 13-15% protein, 60-70% carbohydrate, 4-10%
fat and around 11% and 16% ash (Sidible Williams., 2002; De Caluweet al.,2010).
2.7.2 FRUIT PULP
The dry pulp is either eaten fresh or used to add to
gruels on cooling after cooking. The cattle owing Fulani the Hausa of
northernNigeria use fruit pulp emulsion to mix with milk as a drink (this is
sometimes sold as adulterated)rated cow milk known as “Nonolarya”. In Tanzania,
it is added to aid fermentation of sugarcane for beer making (Fleuret, 1980).
The fruit pulp contains a high amount of carbohydrate, low protein, and extremely
low fat (Osman, 2004). It is also high in Vitamin C, almost ten times that of
oranges (De Caluweet al., 2010).
2.7.3 SEEDS
Generally seed are used as a thickening agent in
soups, but they can be fermented and used as a flavoring agent, or roasted and
eaten as snacks (Palmer and Pitman, 1972; Addy and Eteshola, 1984). When
roasted, they are sometimes used as a substitute for coffee. Seed are also a
source of cooking oil but this is not widespread, although there has been interest
in expanding such use due to deficits of vegetable oils. Oil is extracted by
pounding the seeds (Sidible and Williams, 2002). The seed contains relatively
high amount of protein, crude fat and crude fiber, and low levels of
carbohydrates (Osman, 2004).
2.7.4 MEDICINAL USES
Ø Baobab
is used in traditional medicine as an antipyretic to overcome fevers, both
leave and fruit are used.
Ø Fruit
pulp and powdered seeds are used in case of dysentery and to promote
perspiration.
Ø Seeds
are used in case of diarrhea and hiccough.
Ø Oil
extracted from seeds is used for inflamed gums and to ease diseased teeth.
Ø Powdered
leaves can be used as an anti-asthmatic and they are known to have
anti-histamine properties.
CHAPTER THREE
3.0
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
3.1
MATERIALS
Ø Distilled
water
Ø Weighing
machine
Ø Measuring
cylinder
Ø Container
Ø Powdered
seed of Baobab
Ø Incubator
Ø Conical
flask
Ø Mortar
and pestle
Ø Sieved
Ø Retort
stand
Ø Filter
paper
Ø Catalyst
(Copper)
Ø NaoH
Ø Indicator
Ø Dessicator
Ø Eriochrome
Black
Ø Buffer
3.2 SAMPLE COLLECTION AND PREPARATION
All samples of this study were collected within
Maiduguri, Borno, state. Maiduguri is located in north-eastern Nigeria. Dried
fruit of Adansonia digitata were properly washed with distilled water, sun
dried, pulverized into powder using mortar and pestle, sieved and stored in
airtight container. Surface water sample were also collected, the first sample
was used to rinse the container first before the required volume was collected.
The water sample used for bio sorption studies were preserved.
3.3 METHODOLOGY
3.3.1 PROTEIN
2g of powdered Adansonia digitata
seed was weighed and put into conical flask. One table of catalyst (Copper) and
25ml of concentrated H2SO4 were added to the sample. The
sample was heated in the fume cupboard till the solution assumed a green color.
The solution was allowed to cool and the black particles at the neck of the
flask were washed down back into the solution. After cooling the digest was
transferred into a 250ml of conical flask with several washings with distilled
water.
The distillation was done using the
markham distillation apparatus. A 100ml conical flask containing 5ml of boric
acid indicator was placed under the condenser. 5ml of the digest into the body
of the apparatus via the small funnel aperture, and washed down using distilled
water followed by 5ml of 60% NaOH solution. The apparatus was allowed to stem
through for about 5-7min to collect enough ammonium sulphate. The receiving
flask was then removed and the tip of the condenser was washed down in the
flask.
TITRATION
The solution in the receiving flask
was titrated using 0.01 HCL until the solution turns light pink which indicated
the end point. The titre value was then. A blank solution was also run along
with the sample. The calculations;
%Nitrogen
=
(V-V0) Titre value × 0.014 ×100 (3.1)
Weight
of sample
To
convert %Nitrogen to %protein is given by;
%Protein=%Nitrogen
(6.25) ---- (3.2)
3.3.2 PH
The PH was taken using the multi
photometer (HI 8320). The instrument was set to the appropriate parameter (PH),
10ml of water sample was poured into the glass cell was inserted into the
instrument, and reading were allowed to stabilize before taken.
3.3.3 TOTAL
SUSPENDED SOLID (TSS)
Filter paper was folded and fitted
into a funnel, and the funnel was inserted into a conical flask. 100ml of
distilled water was poured allowed to drain through the filter paper. The
filter papers were carefully removed from the funnel using forceps, and put in
an oven at 150oc and allowed to dry for an hour. After that the
filter paper was then removed, allowed to cool in a desiccator, and weighed.
The filter paper was replaced in funnel and 100ml of properly shook water
sample was poured in and allowed to drain again. After draining, the filter
paper was carefully removed, put in the oven at 105oc for another
one hour, removed and allowed to cool, then weighed again.
(A-B) × 100
Ml
of sample
Where;
A
= Weight of filter + dried residue
B
= Weight of filter
3.3.4 TOTAL ALKALINITY
100ml of well shock sample was
measured and poured into a conical flask and 3 drops of phenol phthalein and 3
drops of methyl orange indicators were added (this gave an orange
colorization). 0.02N Sulphuric acid from the burette was used to titrate the
sample until the yellow colorization turned orange (indicating the end point).
Calculation
Total
alkalinity was calculated using equation 3.3
Total
alkalinity (mg/1 Caco3) = B×N × 100 ...(3.3)
Ml of sample
Where’
B=
Titre value for sample
N=
Normality of acid(0.02N)
3.3.5 HARDNESS
25ml of well shock sample was
measured into a conical flask and made up to 50ml with distilled water. 2ml of
buffer solution and two drops of Eriochrome black indicator was added to sample
(this gave a purple colorization). The sample was titrated with standard solution
of EDTA from a burette until a deep blue colorization was attained (indicating
the end point).
Calculation.
Total
hardness calculated using equation 3.4
Total
hardness mg/l Caco3=A×B × 100 …(3.4)
Ml of sample
Where;
A=ml
of titrant value
B=mg
of caco3 equivalent to 1.00ml EDTA titrant.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND
DISSCUSION
4.1 RESULTS
The
results in the table below shows confirmation of the plant content. The results
of protein content reveals that the seeds contain a total protein of 22.31%.
|
Confirmation
of Plant Content |
Results
|
|
Protein Contents |
22.31% |
|
PH Contents |
6.86% |
|
Total Suspended Solid |
0.023% |
|
Total Alkalinity |
6.24% |
|
Hardness of Water |
8.4% |
4.2 DISCUSSION
Presence of crude protein in Adansonia digitata
seeds indicate that it contains bio coagulant properties. Bio coagulant
proteins present in the seed actually brought about a significant decrease in
the turbidity of the model water. This may be due to the fact that the seeds
contain coagulant proteins which have charged ions and as a result when put in
turbid water at a particular concentration, they released oppositely charged
ions which led to the adsorption and neutralization of the charged particles which
are responsible for the turbidity in water. This finding is similar to the
findings of Ndabigengesereet al.(1995) and Muyibi and Alfugara(2003) who worked
on the use of Moringa oleifera as bio coagulant in turbid water, and reported
that it caused a significant decrease in the turbidity of water.
4.2.1 ADANSONIA DIGITATA SEED AS DISINFECTANT
As a disinfectant Adansonia digitata
seed bio coagulant caused a significant decrease on the total coliform count of
water. This is similar to the findings of Ghebremichael (2004) who worked on
the disinfectant characteristics of Moringa oleifera. The antimicrobial effect
of the bio coagulant may be attributed to flocculation or the coagulant
protein. By flocculation the bio coagulant proteins causes aggregation of the
microorganisms causing them to be settle in the sludge formed after treatment.
4.2.2 ADANSONIA DIGITATA SEED AS BIOSORBENT
As a bio sorbent Adansonia digitata seeds
significantly reduced heavy metal ions from water. This finding is similar to
that of Kumariet al.(2006) and Oboh and Aliyor(2008) who worked on the
adsorption of heavy metals by Moringa oleifera and respectively.
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.
5.1 SUMMARY
Adansonia
digitata seed had a crude protein content of. As a bio coagulant, an optimal
dose of Adansonia digitata seed coagulant was able to decrease turbidity of the
model water. An increase in the dosage of bio coagulant also caused a
significant increase decrease in TSS and alkalinity; while there was no significant
difference in hardness and ph. The bio
coagulant had no significant effect on the physicochemical parameters of the
surface turbid water.
As
a disinfectant the dose significantly reduced the total Coliform Count of model
water.
As
a bio sorbent the seeds of Adansonia digitata was able to significantly reduce
the concentration of the heavy metal ions.
5.2 CONCLUSIONS.
Ø Adansonia
digitata seeds contain coagulant proteins.
Ø Adansonia
digitata seeds possess potentials as a bio coagulant. It was not effective when
used for highly turbid water.
Ø Adansonia
digitata seeds possess potentials as a disinfectant.
Ø Adansonia
digitata seeds possess biosorptive potentials.
5.3 RECOMMENDATION
Ø Adansonia
digitata seed bio coagulant may be used to complement other conventional
coagulants like alum.
Ø Scanning
Electron Microscope (S.E.M) studies may be carried out to understand the
morphology of the Adansonia digitata seed bio sorbent.
Ø The
efficiency of Adansonia digitata seeds as a bio coagulant and disinfectant may
be improved by isolation and purification of the bio coagulant protein.
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