CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background of the Study
There has been a marked increase in the number and
size of towns and cities in many developing countries, including Nigeria,
without corresponding increase in such services that inhibit the breeding of
vectors of malaria resulting in the increase of urban malaria. Malaria is an
infectious disease which is as old as man (Sherman, 1998), caused by a
single-celled protozoan parasite Plasmodium spp. The parasite is transmitted
from human to human through the bite of infected female adult Anopheles
mosquitoes. Four Plasmodium species are known to infect human. These are
Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. malariae and P. ovale. P. falciparum is the
most virulent species and accounts for over 90% of human malaria (Beier, 1999).
P. falciparum malaria is often characterized by fever which may be acute,
sometimes intermittent or continuous. The fever in P. falciparum infection is
sometimes accompanied by shivering and sweating. P. falciparum malaria often
leads to complication (Ukaga, 2003).
Malaria infection is largely distributed throughout
the warmer regions of the world. In Nigeria, malaria is holoendemic (Ukpai and
Ajoku, 2001). More than 2 billion people are at risk of malaria. Worldwide, it
is estimated that there are about 120 million cases of malaria per year (Martin
and Lefebvre, 1995). The effects of malaria are particularly noticeable in
rural areas where malaria frequently strikes during that period of the year
when the need for agricultural work is greatest (WHO, 2002). Studies in rural
areas of Africa where malaria is endemic reveal that over one-third of primary
school children had malaria during a school term, more than half of this group
had two or more attacks typically missing a week or more of school with each
attack (WHO, 1998).
Data on the spread and control of malaria-induce
diseases and economic loses may vary considerably within a relatively small
area (D’Alessandro et al., 1995). It is also widely appreciated that there may
be considerable seasonal and between year variation in all malariometric
indices such that assessments undertaken in a population in different seasons
or years may produce dramatically different results. The epidemiology of
malaria and the ecological and social-linked distribution of malaria vectors
are complicated by both seasonal and periodic variation (Thomson et al., 1996).
In Nigeria, several studies on the pattern and distribution of malaria and its
vectors in urban and semi-urban communities have been reported with little
attention in the rural areas due to the spatial ecological and social
complexity of malaria (Aribodor et al., 2003). A prevalence of malaria of
59.80% has been reported for wet season in Udi, Enugu state (Ezeanya, 1998)
while a prevalence of 58.30% was reported for children aged 0-5 years in Awka,
Anambra state (Mbanugo and Ejims, 2000). In Nigeria, like other tropical
countries, high breeding rates of the vectors of malaria and high transmission
rate occur throughout the year (Oparaocha, 2003; WHO, 2000) particularly during
the rainy season (WHO, 2002; Ezeanya, 1998). In addition to the availability of
numerous breeding places for malaria vectors occasioned by the incessant
rainfall, other factors that tend to increase the rate of malaria transmission
include unsanitary environmental condition, poverty, ignorance, poor
behavioural attitudes and inadequately planned socio-economic projects
(Anothonio-Nkonjio et al., 2006; Robert et al., 2003).
Modugnari ward is one of the largest ward in
Maiduguri metropolitan council founded by an Emigrant called ModuGana. He is
Kanuri by tribe and an Islamic scholar. The ward is formed after him as
Moduganari ward which is situated in the southern part of Maiduguri metropolis
and is dominated by Kanuri people, Hausa, Babur bura, marghi, Igbo, Yoruba and
many others. The health facilities provided in the community include portable
water supply from boreholes although, some of the inhabitant obtained their
water from water vendor, however, the source is still borehole locally open and
close drainages, cesspools are system used for disposing sewage water from
individual houses.
The
maintenance of sewage water from various house remain the responsibility of the
individual households as there was no proper public sewer for drainage.
Therefore, the strong is particularly based on the maintenance and likely
health implication associated with the condition in other to suggest solution
for the maintenance of waste in the area.
It
is obvious that the fight against malaria is deteriorating due to some factors
that should be controlled. These include poor administration, lack of proper
vector-control measures and inadequate planning (Robert et al., 2003).
1.2 Problem of the statement
Reducing the incidence of malaria is a major challenge for Nigeria
in meeting the targets of the UN Millennium Developments Goals (MDGs).
Furthermore, on April 24 2000 the African Leaders at the Abuja Summit on Roll
Back Malaria in Nigeria committed to halve the malaria burden by the year 2010.
The impact of malaria is enormous both at the micro- and macro-economic
levels. Malaria keeps most families’poor; it drains families’ budget. In
Nigeria, as in other developing countries, one third of the annual income of
the poorest households is spent on treating malaria(purchase of drugs for
treating malaria at home; transport cost to and from clinics), loss of
person-hours, absence from school, expenses for preventive measures, expenses
for burial in case of deaths.
Malaria reduces the per capita growth rate of the nation by 1.3%,
which is a substantial loss to the economic growth and perpetuates the vicious
cycle of poverty. Governments bear other costs such as maintenance of health
facilities; purchase of drugs and supplies; public health interventions against
malaria, impedance on economic growth insecticide spraying or distribution of
insecticide-treated bed nets; reduced worker productivity loss of man-hours
with resulting loss of income; and lost opportunities for joint economic
ventures and tourism.Such costs can add substantially to the economic burden of
malaria on endemic countries.
The epidemiology of malaria over small areas remains
poorly understood, and this is particularly true for malaria during epidemics
in areas of Africa, where transmission intensity is low and is also
characterized by acute illness within and varies between
years (Brooker et al., 2004). It was
therefore important to establish the knowledge levels of the community on the
causes of malaria and the available control strategies, with the aim of
controlling and preventing future infection.
1.3 Objectives
of the study
The
main purpose of this study is to examine:
1. The
problem associated with waste disposal system in Moduganari.
2. Examine
how waste disposal ignorance affects the health status of the people in
Moduganari ward.
3. The
environmental practice of the resident of Moduganari MMC towards waste disposal.
4. To
proper possible ways of curtailing malaria infection and waste disposal system.
1.4
The following Research Questions will be
answered;
i.
What are the problems
associated with waste disposal in Moduganari ward?
ii.
Does waste disposal
ignorance affect the health status of the people in Moduganari ward?
iii.
What are the environmental practices of waste
disposal in Moduganari?
iv.
What are the possible
means for curtailing malaria infection in Moduganari?
1.5Significant of the study
Any
reasonable research work must be designed to be of significance to the society.
Also, the significance of a study is for me and the entire ward to have the
knowledge and necessity in keeping our environment clean of which it can stop
and prevent the spread and destruction caused by malaria in Moduganari ward so
also the finding of this research to the problem of improper waste disposal in
the area. The suggestion put forward in the study would enable the authority
concerned to take the necessary measure require to bring about effective waste
management system.
Finally,
this study would ultimately help to bring about better hygiene and health
conditions for the resident in Moduganari. This is because being aware of the
importance of good waste management and the hazard and the stagnant waste water
would enable the people to struggle and maintain a good and proper waste
disposal system so as to avoid disease attacks.
1.6Scope of the study
This project work
could have been extended to the whole of Maiduguri metropolitan council, but
due to the financial construal, the study would only focus on Moduganari and
the factors mainly responsible for the spread of malaria in the area.
1.7 Operational Definition
of Terms
The
following terms are defined as used in the course of this study
Malaria:- Malaria is an infectious disease caused by protozoa parasites
from the Plasmodium falciparum and requires a vector host (female Anopheles
mosquito) and a human host to complete its life cycle.
Waste:-are
unwanted or unusable materials, waste is any substance which is discarded after
primary use, or is worthless, defective and of no use.
Sanitation:-Making
something sanitary (free of germs) as by sterilizing, the state of being clean
and conducive to health.
Vector:–Any
agent (person or animal or microorganism) that carries and transmit a disease.
WHO - World
Health Organization
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Review of theLiterature
2.1 Importance of Malaria
2.2 Concept of Waste
2.3 Waste Management
2.4 Methods of Waste Disposal
2.5 Breeding Ground
2.6 Morphology of Mosquito
2.7 Prevention and Control of Malaria
2.1 Importance of malaria
Malaria is a life threatening parasitic disease
transmitted by the female Anopheles
and ulicidae mosquitoes. It was once
thought that the disease came from fetid marshes, hence the name “mal aria”
(bad air). In 18th century, scientists discovered the real cause of
malaria as a onecelled parasite called Plasmodium
(Manson et al., 1978). Later, they discovered that the parasite is
transmitted from one person to another through the bites of a female anopheles mosquito, which requires blood
meal to nurture her eggs (WHO and UNICEF, 2003). The disease affects all age groups. Each year,
more than 26, 000 children die in Kenya from the direct consequences of malaria
(MOH, 2001). The World Health Organization identified malaria as a key priority
disease and announced the launch of the “Roll Back Malaria” initiative
campaign, which aims to bring about a significant reduction in the global
burden, with an initial emphasis on the high transmission areas of Africa
(Coll-Secket al., 2008). The malaria health burden has an important
morbidity and mortality component, with the severe forms of the disease forming
the majority of the hospital admission of young children in malaria endemic
areas (Goodman et al., 2000). Epidemic malaria in highland areas represents
a significant public health problem (Mouchetet
al., 1998). Rising malaria rates are more likely the result of increased
drug resistance of malaria parasites and the infrequent use of pesticides in
mosquito breeding grounds.
Historically, low exposure to
infection, has led to low levels of mortality in adults and children during
epidemics. At the same time, national malaria control programmes are poorly
equipped in terms of identifying and responding to outbreaks, and many previous
outbreaks have been allowed to develop more or less unchecked. There is a dual need for scientific understanding
of highland malaria on one hand and greater local capacity building in epidemic
surveillance and response on the other hand (Mouchetet al., 1998). Highland Malaria is the malaria which is affecting
the highland dwellers where the disease used not to be reported due to the
influence of the recent climatic changes leading to global warming causing the
increase in temperatures therefore, supporting and sustaining the disease
vector and the causative organism. Highland malaria in this case implies those
malaria transmission factors which are directly or indirectly affected by
altitude that are of epidemiological significance (Baraunet al., 1997). Most of these are environmental factors and
temperature which affects the development and survival of the vector and more
significantly, the duration of Plasmodium
development within the invertebrate host (Pampana, 1969). Spatial and temporal variations in
precipitation are important in determining the nature and scale of malaria
transmission in highland areas. The
effects of rainfall and temperature are linked to relative humidity which has a
significant effect on the longevity of adult vectors (Martens et al., 1995; McMichael et al., 1998; MOH, 2008). Relative humidity of 60% or more is necessary
for effective malaria transmission (Molineaux, 1998). Once disturbed, the
malaria transmission system will either reach a new equilibrium or return to
its original position, depending on the nature of the original disturbance and
the resilience of the system (Najera et
al., 1993). In the African highlands, it has been noted that epidemics
reflect irregular temporary disturbances to this equilibrium, most commonly
associated with meteorological conditions.
2.2 The Concept of
Waste
The sixth edition of the Oxford
Advanced Learners‟ Dictionary categorizes the term “waste” into two broad
perspectives. They are; waste as “Not use well” and “Not good use”. The former
has to do with doing, using, giving, or saying something than its necessary or
useful or perhaps where it is not valued in the way that it should be. Thus
when one hears things like: why waste money on the clothes you don’t need? You’re
wasting your time trying to explain it to him because he will not understand? You’re
wasted as a sale manager- you should have been an actor? One should bear in
mind that the term is being used in the context of notuse-well category. On the
other hand, the latter sees waste from the view of materials that are no longer
needed and are thrown away. In this study, our discussions will take it base
from the latter’s view point as it regards waste.
Nigel Bell in Akinwale (2005) defines wastes
as rubbish or materials that are not needed and are economically unusable
without further processing. Here, Nigel emphasis is that to ascertain something
as a waste, it has to be economically unusable- in other words, it is
unproductive since it has lost the economic value(s) therein. However, Nigel‟s
position can be questioned because recent practices have shown that what one
party considers as unneeded materials, and of course economically unusable, may
be the most needed and of economic importance to another party. This is to say,
what is waste in a place may turn out to become non waste in another place. For
example, after drinking the liquid contents of a bottle of champagne, the empty
bottle is considered as a waste by the person who drank the liquid content and
perhaps is thrown away. But, another person may pick it up from the point of
disposal and either reuse or recycle the empty bottle for containing another
liquid substance or some other item of economic importance. The bone of
contention here is that it is not clear to say at what point an item
constitutes a waste.
Defra in Ogwueleka (2009) succinctly
posits that there is no definitive list of what is and is not waste. It goes
further to state that whether or not a substance is discarded as waste- and
when waste ceases to be waste- are matters that must be determined on the facts
of the case and the interpretation of the law. Defra is of the opinion that
whether or not a substance is discarded as waste rests, on one hand, with the
producer or holder of such substance to decide whether it is being discarded as
waste and, on the other hand, with regulations or laws stipulating a such.
Contrary to Defra‟s position that there is no
definitive list of what is and is not waste, the Council of the European
Communities had on the 26th of March, 1991, adopted that waste shall
mean any substance or object in the categories set out below, which the holder
discards or intends or is required to discard. The categories include:
Ø Production
or consumption residues not otherwise specified below
Ø Off-specification
products
Ø Products
whose date for appropriate use has expired
Ø Materials
spilled, lost or having undergone other mishap, including any materials,
equipment, etc. contaminated as a result of the mishap
Ø Materials
contaminated or soiled as a result of planned actions (e.g. residues from
cleaning operations, packing materials, containers, etc.)
Ø Unusable
parts (e.g. reject batteries, exhausted catalysts, etc.)
Ø Substances
which no longer perform satisfactorily (e.g. contaminated acids, contaminated
solvents, exhausted tempering salts, etc.)
Ø Residues
of industrial process (e.g. slags, still bottoms, etc.)
Ø Residues
from pollution abatement processes (e.g. scrubber sludge’s, bughouse dusts,
spent filters, etc.)
Ø Machining/finishing
residues (e.g. lathe turnings, mill scales, etc.)
Ø Residues
from raw materials extraction and processing (e.g. mining residues, oil field
slops, etc.)
Ø Adulterated
materials (e.g. oils contaminated with PCBs, etc.)
Ø Any
materials, substances or products whose use has been banned by law
Ø Products
for which the holder has no further use (e.g. agricultural, household, office,
commercial and shop discards, etc.)
Ø Contaminated
materials, substances or products resulting from remedial action with respect
to land
Ø Any
materials, substances or products which are not contained in the above
categories.
The
holder, in this context, shall mean the producer (anyone whose activities
produce waste and/or anyone who carries out pre-processing, mixing, or other
operations resulting in a change in the nature or composition of this waste) of
waste or the natural or legal person who is in possession of it. It may worth
our while to re-emphasize here that waste is sometimes a subjective concept,
because items that some people discard may have value to others and as
Wikipedia free Encyclopedia (2010) observes that on a global scale, it is
difficult to report waste because countries have different definitions of waste
and what falls into waste categories, as well as different ways reporting. In
other words, what the Council of the European Communities listed as waste may
differ from what constitutes waste in Nigeria or in any other territory.
The
2009 model Encarta soft dictionary, highlighted seven aspects of waste, they
include waste as an (a):
v Act of Wasting: a
failure to use something wisely, properly, fully, or to good effect. Example; a
complete waste of money.
v Unwanted Material: unwanted
or unusable items, remains, or byproducts, or household garbage. Example;
chemical waste
v Excrement:
the undigested remainder of food expelled from the body as excrement.
v Used or Contaminated
Water: used or contaminated water from
domestic, industrial, or mining applications.
v Rock associated with
mineral: enclosing rock mined with a mineral, or
ore with insufficient mineral content to justify further processing.
v Wild area:
an uncultivated, desolate, or wild area (often used in the plural) as in the
frozen wastes of Antarctica.
v Destroyed area: a
place or region that has been destroyed or ruined.
Contributing
to the subject matter, the Basel convention cast its vote to the school of
thought that believes that wastes are “substances or objects which are disposed
of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the
provisions of national law”. While the United Nations Statistics Division
(UNSD) stated that “Wastes are materials that are not prime products (that is
products produced for the market) for which the generator has no further use in
terms of his/her own purposes of production, transformation or consumption, and
of which he/she wants to dispose. Wastes may be generated during the extraction
of raw materials, the processing of raw materials into intermediate and final
products, the consumption of final products, and other human activities.
Residuals recycled or reused at the place of generation are excluded”. Attah
(2009) noted that the Federal Environmental Protection Agency Act of 1988 did
not define waste. Only some sate statues attempt to do so. For example, section
32 of the Lagos State.
Environmental
Sanitation Edict has a definition similar to the UK Environmental Protection
Act 1990, as any substance which constitutes a scrap material, an effluent or
other unwanted surplus substance arising from the application of any process.
He further states that waste is usually classified according to:
(a) its
source,
(b) its
harmful effect on humans and the environment, and
(c) The
control which are appropriate to deal with it.
With
regards to the source classification, it either comes out of the shop (market)
or office - commercial waste or, out of
the factory- industrial waste, or out of the home – household or domestic
waste.
Pongracz
and Pohjola (2004) proposed four perspectives by which wastes could be
interpreted. To them, wastes are:
• Non-wanted
things created, not intended, or not avoided, with no purpose.
• Things
that were given a finite purpose thus destined to become useless after
fulfilling it.
• Things
with well-defined purpose, but their performance ceased being acceptable
• Things
with well-defined purpose, and acceptable performance, but their users failed
to use them for the intended purpose.
TalichiOhno
(Wikipedia encyclopedia: 2010) from Toyota production System describes waste as
“Any human activity that absorbs resources but creates no value”. By
implication, Ohno was of the view that whatsoever human activity that only
receives without giving out value(s) could be termed as waste. At this point,
the bone of contention as to the un-clarification of at what point an item constitutes
a waste could be balanced, drawing conclusion from the discussion so far. To be
brief, we shall adopt our conclusion from the consensus of the Waste Framework
Directive of the European Union (75/442/EC) that once a substance or object has
become waste, it will remain waste until it has been fully recovered and no
longer poses a potential threat to the environment or to human health.
Therefore, anything which is discarded or otherwise dealt with as if it were
waste shall be presumed to be waste unless the contrary is proved. Waste, as a
concept, does not exist in abstraction but has impacts as well as costs on
nature and human.
2.3 Waste Management
Literally,
waste management is the process of managing waste materials (normally those
produced as a result of human activities). In order to define waste management,
we need to include several different processes such as collection, transport,
processing, recycling, disposing, and monitoring of waste. Along this line, the
Wikipedia Web Encyclopedia 2010 defines waste management as the collection,
transport, processing, recycling or disposal and monitoring of waste materials.
According to Atsegbua L.A & et al (2003:104), waste management does not
just end at collection, transporting processing, recycling or disposal and
monitoring of wastes materials but refers to the collection, keeping, treatment
and disposal of wastes in such a way as to render then harmless to human and
animal life, the ecology and environment generally. In other words, the primary
aim of managing wastes is for the safety of human, animal, ecology and
environment. We could as well add here that any other aim that goes in contrary
to the aims mentioned above does not constitutes waste management. Attah (2009)
added that waste management could also be said to be the organized and
systematic dumping and channeling of waste through or into landfills or
pathways to ensure that they are disposed of with attention to acceptable
public health and environmental safeguard and that a proper waste management
will result in the abatement or total elimination of pollution. Attah‟s
contribution raises some critical concerns with regards to the situation in
Nigeria (generally) and Enugu State (in particular).
2.4 Methods of Waste Disposal
Practically, there are just two
methods- those that are environmentally friendly e.g. sanitary or engineered
landfill and composting, and those that are not, including incineration, stream
dumping and open burning. Other existing methods include: petrification,
bailing, land burial and pyrolysis, just to mention a few. Also of all the
listed methods above only the sanitary landfill, stream dumping and land burial
are permanent waste disposal systems while the others are just waste treatment
i.e. meant to reduce the waste volume.
2.4.1 Landfill method
Disposing of waste in a landfill
involves burying the waste, and this remains a common practice in most
countries. Landfills were often established in abandoned or unused quarries,
mining voids or borrow pits. A properly designed and well-managed landfill can
be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste
materials. Older, poorly designed or poorly managed landfills can create a
number of adverse environmental impacts such as wind-blown litter, attraction
of vermin, and generation of liquid leachate. Another common byproduct of
landfills is gas (mostly composed of methane and carbon dioxide), which is
produced as organic waste breaks down anaerobically. This gas can create odour
problems, kill surface vegetation, and is a greenhouse gas.
Design
characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to contain leachate such
as clay or plastic lining material. Deposited waste is normally compacted to
increase its density and stability, and covered to prevent attracting vermin
(such as mice or rats). Many landfills also have landfill gas extraction
systems installed to extract the landfill gas. Gas is pumped out of the
landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or burnt in a gas engine to generate
electricity.
2.4.2 Incineration method
Incineration is a disposal method that
involves combustion of waste material. Incineration and other high temperature
waste treatment systems are sometimes described as “thermal treatment”.
Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam and ash.
Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large
scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It
is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste
materials (such as biological medical waste). Incineration is a controversial
method of waste disposal, due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.
Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is scarcer, as
these facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills. Waste-to-energy
(WTE) or energy-form- waste (EFW) is broad terms for facilities that burn waste
in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam and/or electricity. Combustion
in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns about
micro-pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular
concern has focused on some very persistent organics such as dioxins, furans,
PAHs, which may be created within the incinerator and afterwards in the
incinerator plume which may have serious environmental consequences in the area
immediately around the incinerator. On the other hand this method or the more
benign anaerobic digestion produces heat that can be used as energy.
2.4.3 Plasma gasification method
Plasma is a highly ionized or
electrically charged gas. An example in nature is lightning, capable of
producing temperatures exceeding 12,6000F (6,9800C). A
gasifier vessel utilizes proprietary plasma torches operating at +10,0000F
(5,5400C) (the surface temperature of the sun) in order to create a
gasification zone of up to 3,0000F (1,6500C) to convert
solid or liquid wastes into a syngas. When municipal solid waste is subjected
to this intense heat within the vessel, the waste‟s molecular bonds break down
into elemental components. The process results in elemental destruction of
waste and hazardous materials. Plasma gasification offers states new
opportunities for waste disposal, and more importantly for renewable power
generation in an environmental sustainable manner (Alliance Federated Energy).
2.4.4 Recycling
Method
The popular meaning of „recycling‟
in most developed countries refers to the widespread collection and reuse of
everyday waste materials such as empty beverage containers. These are collected
and sorted into common types so that the raw materials from which the items are
made can be reprocessed into new products. Material for recycling may be
collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection
vehicles, or sorted directly from mixed waste streams.
The
most common consumer products recycled include aluminum beverage cans, steel
food and aerosol cans, HDPE and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard
cartons, newspapers, magazines, and corrugated fiberboard boxes.
PVC,
LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also recyclable, although
these are not commonly collected. These items are usually composed of a single
type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The
recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is
more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation required.
Critics dispute the net economic and environmental benefits or recycling over
its costs, and suggest that proponents of recycling often make matters worse
and suffer from confirmation bias. Specifically, critics argue that the costs
and energy used in collection and transportation detract from (and outweigh)
the costs and energy saved in the production process; also that the jobs
produced by the recycling industry can be a poor trade for the jobs lost in
logging, mining, and other industries associated with virgin production; and
that materials such as paper pulp can only be recycled a few times before material
degradation prevents further recycling. Proponents of recycling dispute each of
these claims, and the validity of arguments from both sides has led to enduring
controversy.
2. 5 Breeding Ground of
Mosquito
From all angles of research one can
easily identify the breeding ground of mosquito as dirty water. History shows
that the life of mosquito from egg to a fully developed mosquito starts and
ends in dirty place where water start use to be stagnant and carelessly left
untaken care off. Equally having in dirty surrounding contributes a lot in
giving itself a breeding home. J.O Olarunde (2006)
2.6 Morphology of Mosquito
The mosquito carry’s this endemic
disease through the sucking of blood from a person suffering from malaria. This
also undergoes some stage of development in the mosquito itself before
transmitted to another person. The parasites travel along with blood which the
mosquitos suck through its proboscis. And the parasite is made up of male and
female, when they get into mosquito there they will change their shape which
will look round like ball, and this stage the male once formed from themselves
a number of whip like, wrangling streamers which the female settle on the
stomach wall of the mosquito.
After
sometime the male streamers break off and each wrangles about until they meet
one of the female cell. At this stage, soon an enormous number of little needle
like body develop into this eggs and can also be referred to as spore and after
sometime, the eggs will boost and the spore are set free in the body of the
mosquito, some will enter its salivary gland which is situated in its chest,
after all this stage, when the mosquito bite man some of these spore will be
injected with the saliva of the mosquito into human body. All this development
of sexual forms from a malaria patient to change into spore, inside the host
mosquito takes about eight days.
2.7 Control of Malaria
The aim of prevention and control of malaria is to
reduce the damage caused by the disease, while protecting the human health,
conserving the environment and reducing the economic loss. The rise in the number of people infected
with malaria in many tropical countries and the consequence of impoverished
economies have given rise to the need to adopt integrated control strategies
for malaria management. Strategies to prevent malaria may focus on either
preventing mosquito bites or eradicating the parasite. The most effective technique available to
date for control of mosquitoes is the use of ITNs which act as barriers to
prevent mosquito bites (MOH, 2001; Hamel et
al., 2011). Although WHO has
launched massive malaria control programs, the disease is difficult to control,
as the malaria parasite has developed resistance to some drugs such as
chloroquine based drugs.
People traveling to malaria endemic areas
should take prophylactic measures: non-visitors should take mefloquine or
doxycline; patients with sickle cell should take proguarine and patients with
tropical spleenomegaly syndrome /hyper immune malaria splenomegaly are
recommended to take proguaril (MOH, 2008). They should seek early medical care
if they develop fever three months after travel to an endemic area, even if
adequate prophylaxis had been taken. Travelers should carry a full dose of ArtemetherLumefantrin (stand by
treatment) for use in the event they develop a fever and have no immediate
access to health services (MOH, 2008).
Environmental modification helps to eliminate the
mosquito breeding sites, playing an important role in vector control. This method aims at managing the environment
by making it unsuitable for mosquito breeding.
Since the immature stages of the mosquito are aquatic, proper management
of the environment through use of lavicides can help to suppress vector
densities (WHO, 1997). Climatic change
coupled with indispensable human activities such as tea growing, banana and
maize planting, deforestation, dam construction, fish ponds and irrigation
projects contribute to vector occurrence, due to creation of suitable breeding
grounds (Thin et al., 2002). Proper management of these breeding sites may
significantly reduce the mosquito breeding sites, therefore contributing to
malaria control. In Kenya, there has
been high mortality of mosquito larvae after periodic drainage of
intermittently irrigated subplots, thus demonstrating the positive effect of
this method in the control of the mosquitoes (Muteroet al., 2000). The rapid
increase in human population exerts much pressure on the environment, creating
diverse breeding grounds for the mosquitoes which are difficult or expensive to
control (Oaks et al., 1991).
Mosquito skin repellants have also been found to
prevent the transmission of malaria (Apiwatet
al., 2001). Extracts from Neem tree
and cloves have been studied as possible mosquito repellants and have
demonstrated good efficacy against some mosquito species (Sharma et al., 1993). The use of predators, parasites or automopathogens
as control agents, commonly called biological control measures have been
exploited as possible means of vector control (Priyanka et al., 2001). The mosquito
eating fish, Gambusiaaffinis
contributed to the reduction of malaria in Europe (Rozoendaalet al., 1997). These can impact positively on malaria
control especially in dams, fish ponds and rivers and other mosquito breeding
sites (Martens, 1990). In Gucha, community awareness campaigns, the
distributions of ITNs and the spraying of indoor residual spraying (IRS)
chemicals (icon and k-orthorine sachets) are in place as control measures
against vectors of malaria. For curative
purposes, the current government policy is the use of Artemisinin combination
therapy, which is now available in all government hospitals.
Currently, in Gucha district, there is use of
artemisinin combination therapy as the first line drugs for simple malaria
infections and quinine for severe malaria (MOH, 2008). The elements of
integrated vector management can be applied in the management of malaria and
this includes: advocacy, social mobilization and legislation, embedding of
integrated vector management (IVM) principles in development of policies,
strengthening regulatory and legislative controls for public health and
empowerment of communities (MOPHS, 2009).
Integrated vector management also includes public
and private sectors sharing and optimizing the use of available resources,
building capacity for planning, monitoring and decision making at lowest
possible operational level, integrated approaches like integration of chemical
and nonchemical vectors control methods with other disease control measures. In
addition, evidence-based decision
making, adoption of strategies and interventions to the local context guided by
operational research, entomological and epidemiological surveillance and
evaluation, capacity building, development of adequate human resources,
training and career structures at national and local levels to manage IVM
programmes. The development of physical infrastructure and provision of
financial resources are also very important elements (MOPHS, 2009). During the
1950s and 1960s, malaria was effectively controlled by IRS, mass drug
administration and chemoprophylaxis (Roberts, 1964). Between 1980s and 1990s, a
series of malaria epidemics were reported in the highlands (Malakootiet al., 1998). Insecticide treated nets
are now widely used as a means of preventing man-vector contacts, in the
control of malaria, and forms the major components of disease prevention
methods.
A reports by Desowitz (1999) suggested that the
combination of improved access to medical services and protection against the
bites of the adult mosquitoes by application of ITNs by all would reduce the
malaria morbidity cases by half by the year 2010. However, use of ITNs by all,
is yet to be achieved and parasite resistance to some anti-malarials is on the
increase (Desowitz, 1999). Through an
integrated control of all parasitic infections, the government can minimize the
malaria problem though the promotion of ITNs and mass treatment of the sick
with approved anti-malarial drugs.
2.8 Summary of Literature Review and the Uniqueness of the study
This research has reviewed some related
literatures associate with improper waste
disposal as a predictor to malaria infection in Moduganari ward Maiduguri
metropolitan council Borno state, Nigeria; Chief among those literature review
discussed are;Importance of
Malaria, Concept of Waste, Waste Management, Methods of Waste Disposal,
Breeding Ground of mosquito, Morphology of Mosquito.
The literature review also talks about the
prevention and control of malaria infection in Moduganari ward Maiduguri
metropolitan council Borno state, Nigeria in a summarized form. It is therefore
the intention of the research to find out if there is any significant
relationship between improper waste disposal and malaria infection and to what
extend those waste enhance malaria infection.
CHAPTER
THREE
METHODOLOGY
The study of improper waste disposal as a predictor
to malaria infection in Moduganari ward Maiduguri metropolitan council Borno
state, Nigeria; the methodology adopted for the study were discussed under the
following sub-heading.
3.1 Research
Design
3.2 Population and Sample
3.3 Research
Instrument
3.4 Procedure
for Data Collection
3.5 Method
of Data Analysis
3.1 Research Design
Survey research was used for this study (Nwogu,
1991) he defines survey research method as method in which a group of people or
items are studied by collecting and analyzing data from few people or item and
it is considered representative an entire group.
Survey method according to (Osuala, 1982) is the
process of studying both large and small population by selecting and studying sample
chosen from the population to discover the relative incidence, distribution and
psychological variable.
3.2 Population of Sample
The population of this study comprises of the area
under Moduganari ward Maiduguri metropolitan council of Borno state. Stratified
random sampling techniques could be used. A stratified random sampling
techniques is defined by (Teddlies, 2003) as the sample aimed at achieving
representativeness which is the degree of which sampling accurately represents
the entire population. (Maxwell, 1997) view sampling techniques in which
particular certain person or event or deliberately selected for the important
information they can provide that cannot be gotten as well as other choices.
This technique is used for these studies because subjects were randomly
selected from some parts Moduganari ward Maiduguri metropolitan council of
Borno state for the purpose of this study.
3.3 Research Instrument
Data was collected from the respondent
through self-developed questionnaire. The questionnaire has five (5) different
sections ‘A’ was design to collect information on demographic characteristic or
information of the respondent, Section ‘B’ was design to determine
the environmental practices of waste disposal practice in Moduganari
ward MMC; Section ‘C’ was design to determine the importance of pest and
vector management; Sector ‘D’ was design to determine poor sanitary environment
as a predictor of malaria infection, Sector ‘E’ was design to determine the
means for curtailing malaria infection in MMC.The questionnaire was validated
by the supervisor to check for appropriateness of each question in terms of
suitability to capture the information required and make necessary correction.
Also the questionnaire has been found effective in sampling people opinion in
the research question by the reliable result gathered from the questionnaire
administered to the target population.
3.4 Procedure for Data Collection
An introductory letter will be obtained from the
Head of department Physical health education of university of Maiduguri which
will be accompany the questionnaire to some of the population of Moduganari
ward Maiduguri metropolitan council of Borno state. The researcher in the
course of carrying out research, distributed the questionnaire to the educated
elites of the populace in the ward and patiently for the respondents to fill
out the information as contained in the questionnaire.
3.5 Method of Data Analysis
Following completion of data collection, it was
reviewed, organized and reported appropriately based on the entries received.
The results are based upon the date obtained from the resident of Moduganari
ward Maiduguri metropolitan council of Borno state. The waste disposal was
reported as percentage. The survey was descriptive and data was summarized as
counts and percentages. The collected will be analyzed and discussed
appropriately.
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